Quantcast
Channel: Pakistan Affairs
Viewing all 6213 articles
Browse latest View live
↧

Pakistani presidential election, 2013

September 9, 2013, 12:34 pm
$
0
0

Presidential elections were held on 30 July 2013 in Pakistan to elect the 12th President of Pakistan.[2] Incumbent President Asif Ali Zardari’s term was scheduled to expire on 8 September 2013; and as such, Article 41 of the Constitution of Pakistan required the elections to be held no later than 8 August 2013.[3] The Electoral College of Pakistan– a joint sitting of the Senate, National Assembly and Provincial Assemblies– were tasked with electing a new President to succeed President Zardari, who declined to seek a second term in office.[4] After the Pakistan Peoples Party and its allies boycotted the presidential election, the two candidates were Mamnoon Hussain backed by the Pakistan Muslim League (N), andWajihuddin Ahmed backed by Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf. Agra-born Hussain was elected president by a majority securing 432 votes.[1] The elections were the first time in Pakistani history where a civilian President was elected while an incumbent civilian President was still in office, completing a historic and democratic transition of power that began with the 2013 General Elections.[5]

Background 

Following the 2013 general elections, it was expected that the new president would be chosen by the party that won a plurality and thus headed by Prime MinisterNawaz Sharif, the Pakistan Muslim League (N).[6][7] It is the first time in the country that a president elect has been chosen in the presence of a sitting president.

Schedule 

The Election Commission of Pakistan announced the initial election schedule on 17 July 2013. All nomination papers for candidates had to be submitted by 24 July, with scrutiny occurring on 26 July. Candidates then had an additional 3 days to withdraw their nomination, after which the official candidate list was announced. The elections were originally to take place via secret ballot on 6 August, and official results confirmed the next day. The elections would be presided by the Chief Justices of the Islamabad High Court and the 4 provincial High Courts.[3][8]

The Supreme Court of Pakistan on 24 July, revised the date for the presidential election on the appeal of the ruling party, PML (N), asking the election commission to hold it on 30 July instead of 6 August. The court made the order as many of the lawmakers who will elect a replacement for President Asif Ali Zardari will be paying pilgrimages or offering special prayers on 6 August for the holy month of Ramadan, which ends a few days later, thus making it potentially difficult for some lawmakers to oblige with their religious duties along with the election. The petition was filed by the leader of the house in the Senate Raja Zafarul Haq on the same day.[9][10]

The court ordered the Election Commission of Pakistan to change the election schedule on the appeal of the Federal government: nomination papers were filed on 24 July, their scrutiny was held on 26 July, the withdrawal of candidature up to 12 noon on 27 July and the final list of candidates was published at 5pm on 27 July. The polling was held on 30 July.[10]
Candidates[edit source | editbeta]

The PML (N) nominated former Sindh Governor Mamnoon Hussain as its candidate; while the Pakistan People's Party nominated Senator Raza Rabbani (later boycotting); and Pakistan Tehrik-e-Insaaf named Justice Wajihuddin Ahmed.[11]

Mamnoon Hussain 

Hussain is an Agra-born business man. He belongs to Sindh and owns a textile business in Karachi. He was born in Uttar Pradesh, India, in 1940. He started his political career in the 60s as a Muslim Leaguer. He is considered loyal to the current Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif.[12]

In 1999, he was elected as the president of the Karachi Chamber of Commerce and Industries (KCCI) and was soon selected by Nawaz Sharif to become governor of Sindh in June 1999, but lost the post after the then Army Chief Gen Pervez Musharraf overthrew the PML-N government in a military coup in October 1999.[12][13]

Wajiuddin Ahmed

Ahmed is a retired senior justice of the Supreme Court of Pakistan, human rights activist, Jurist Doctor[14] and former professor of law at the Sindh Muslim Law College.[15][16]

Prior to be elevated as Senior Justice of the Supreme Court, he briefly tenured as the Chief Justice of the Sindh High Court from 1998 until refusing take oath in opposition to martial law in 1999. He remained a strong critic of PresidentPervez Musharraf, eventually taking up a leading role in Lawyer's movement in 2007 to oppose President Musharraf. Ultimately, he unsuccessfully ran for the presidential elections held in 2007. Since 2011, he has been active in national politicsthroughPakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) and became a forerunner on PTI platform for the presidential election.[15]

Boycotts 

On 26 July, the PPP announced its decision to boycott the election. The Awami National Party (ANP) and the Balochistan National Party (BNP) also announced a boycott. They cited as their reason the Supreme Court of Pakistan's decision to change the election date from 6 August without consulting all parties.
Electoral College Strength[edit source | editbeta]

The Electoral College of Pakistan is formed by a joint sitting of the six leading political bodies in Pakistan:

So that each province has an equal vote, all provincial assemblies are given exactly 65 votes in the electoral college. This mean that the each member of the Punjab Assembly has 65/370 = 0.176 votes, each member of the Sindh Assembly has 65/168 = 0.387 votes, each member of the KPK Assembly has 65/124 = 0.524 votes and each member of the Balochistan Assembly has 65/65 = 1 vote.[18]

  
Enhanced by Zemanta
↧
Search

Ansar Abbasi Column Appreciate Abdul Qadir

September 9, 2013, 1:35 pm
$
0
0
Ansar Abbasi Column Appreciate Abdul Qadir

Enhanced by Zemanta
↧
↧

Reality of Shahzeb Murder Case

September 9, 2013, 10:58 pm
$
0
0



 Reality of Shahzeb Murder Case
 


Enhanced by Zemanta
↧

The World Trade Center History and Facts

September 10, 2013, 12:31 am
$
0
0
English: The Twin Towers of the World Trade Ce...
  The Twin Towers of the World Trade Center from Battery Park City.
The World Trade Center is a complex of buildings under construction in Lower Manhattan, New York City, United States, replacing an earlier complex of seven buildings with the same name on the same site. The original World Trade Center featured landmark twin towers, which opened on April 4, 1973 and were destroyed in the September 11 attacks of 2001, along with 7 World Trade Center. The other buildings in the complex were damaged in the attacks, and their ruins were eventually demolished. The site is being rebuilt with five new skyscrapers and a memorial to those killed in the attacks. As of August 2013, only one skyscraper has been completed; and 2 others have been topped out. The remaining 3 are expected to be completed before 2020. One World Trade Center will be the lead building for the new complex, reaching more than 100 stories at its completion.[4] It became the tallest building in New York City on April 30, 2012, and is now topped out. It is expected to officially open for business in 2014. A sixth tower is awaiting confirmation.
 
At the time of their completion, the original 1 World Trade Center (the North Tower) and 2 World Trade Center (the South Tower), known collectively as the "Twin Towers", were the tallest buildings in the world. The other buildings included 3 WTC (the Marriott World Trade Center), 4 WTC, 5 WTC, 6 WTC, and 7 WTC. All of these buildings were built between 1975 and 1985. The cost for the construction was $400 million ($2,300,000,000 in 2013 dollars).[5] The complex was located in the heart of New York City's downtown financial district and contained 13.4 million square feet (1.24 million m2) of office space.[6][7]The World Trade Center experienced a fire on February 13, 1975, a bombing on February 26, 1993 and a robbery on January 14, 1998. In 1998, the Port Authority decided to privatize the World Trade Center, leasing the buildings to a private company to manage, and awarded the lease to Silverstein Properties in July 2001.
 
On the morning of September 11, 2001, Al-Qaeda-affiliated hijackers flew two Boeing 767 jets into the complex, one into each tower, in a coordinated terrorist attack. After burning for 56 minutes, the South Tower (2) collapsed, followed a half-hour later by the North Tower (1), with the attacks on the World Trade Center resulting in 2,753 deaths.[8] Falling debris from the towers, combined with fires that the debris initiated in several surrounding buildings, led to the partial or complete collapse of all the other buildings in the complex and caused catastrophic damage to ten other large structures in the surrounding area. The process of cleanup and recovery at the World Trade Center site took eight months.
 
Over the following years, plans for a rebuilt World Trade Center took form. The first new building at the site was 7 World Trade Center, which opened in May 2006. The Lower Manhattan Development Corporation (LMDC), established in November 2001 to oversee the rebuilding process, organized competitions to select a site plan and memorial design. Memory Foundations, designed by Daniel Libeskind, was selected as the master plan, but this went through substantial changes in design. The new World Trade Center complex will include One World Trade Center, three other high-rise office towers, and the National September 11 Memorial & Museum.and construction
 
The idea of establishing a World Trade Center in New York City was first proposed in 1943. The New York State Legislature passed a bill authorizing New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey to begin developing plans for the project[9] but the plans were put on hold in 1949.[10] During the late 1940s and 1950s, economic growth in New York City was concentrated in Midtown Manhattan. To help stimulate urban renewal in Lower Manhattan, David Rockefeller suggested that the Port Authority build a World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan.[11]Initial plans, made public in 1961, identified a site along the East River for the World Trade Center.[12] As a bi-state agency, the Port Authority required approval for new projects from the governors of both New York and New Jersey. New Jersey Governor Robert B. Meyner objected to New York getting a $335 million project.[13] Toward the end of 1961, negotiations with outgoing New Jersey Governor Meyner reached a stalemate.[14]
 
At the time, ridership on New Jersey's Hudson and Manhattan Railroad (H&M) had declined substantially from a high of 113 million riders in 1927 to 26 million in 1958 after new automobile tunnels and bridges had opened across the Hudson River.[15] In a December 1961 meeting between Port Authority director Austin J. Tobin and newly elected New Jersey Governor Richard J. Hughes, the Port Authority offered to take over the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad to have it become the Port Authority Trans-Hudson (PATH). The Port Authority also decided to move the World Trade Center project to the Hudson Terminal building site on the west side of Lower Manhattan, a more convenient location for New Jersey commuters arriving via PATH.[14]
 
With the new location and Port Authority acquisition of the H&M Railroad, New Jersey, agreed to support the World Trade Center project.[16]Approval was also needed from New York City Mayor John Lindsay and the New York City Council. Disagreements with the city centered on tax issues. On August 3, 1966, an agreement was reached that the Port Authority would make annual payments to the City in lieu of taxes for the portion of the World Trade Center leased to private tenants.[17] In subsequent years, the payments would rise as the real estate tax rate increased.[18]

Architectural design

On September 20, 1962, the Port Authority announced the selection of Minoru Yamasaki as lead architect and Emery Roth & Sons as associate architects.[19] Yamasaki devised the plan to incorporate twin towers; Yamasaki's original plan called for the towers to be 80 stories tall,[20] but to meet the Port Authority's requirement for 10,000,000 square feet (930,000 m2) of office space, the buildings would each have to be 110 stories tall.[21]
 
A major limiting factor in building height is the issue of elevators; the taller the building, the more elevators are needed to service the building, requiring more space-consuming elevator banks.[21] Yamasaki and the engineers decided to use a new system with two "sky lobbies"—floors where people could switch from a large-capacity express elevator to a local elevator that goes to each floor in a section. This system, inspired by the New York City Subway system,[22] allowed the design to stack local elevators within the same elevator shaft. Located on the 44th and 78th floors of each tower, the sky lobbies enabled the elevators to be used efficiently, increasing the amount of usable space on each floor from 62 to 75 percent by reducing the number of elevator shafts.[23][24] Altogether, the World Trade Center had 95 express and local elevators.[25]
 
Yamasaki's design for the World Trade Center, unveiled to the public on January 18, 1964, called for a square plan approximately 208 feet (63 m) in dimension on each side.[20][26] The buildings were designed with narrow office windows 18 inches (46 cm) wide, which reflected Yamasaki's fear of heights as well as his desire to make building occupants feel secure.[27] Yamasaki's design included building facades sheathed in aluminum-alloy.[28] The World Trade Center was one of the most-striking American implementations of the architectural ethic of Le Corbusier, and it was the seminal expression of Yamasaki's gothic modernist tendencies.[29]In addition to the twin towers, the plan for the World Trade Center complex included four other low-rise buildings, which were built in the early 1970s. The 47-story 7 World Trade Center building was added in the 1980s, to the north of the main complex. Altogether, the main World Trade Center complex occupied a 16-acre (65,000 m2) superblock.[30]

Structural design

The structural engineering firm Worthington, Skilling, Helle & Jackson worked to implement Yamasaki's design, developing the tube-frame structural system used in the twin towers. The Port Authority's Engineering Department served as foundation engineers, Joseph R. Loring & Associates as electrical engineers, and Jaros, Baum & Bolles as mechanical engineers. Tishman Realty & Construction Company was the general contractor on the World Trade Center project. Guy F. Tozzoli, director of the World Trade Department at the Port Authority, and Rino M. Monti, the Port Authority's Chief Engineer, oversaw the project.[31]
 
 As an interstate agency, the Port Authority was not subject to local laws and regulations of the City of New York including building codes. Nonetheless, the structural engineers of the World Trade Center ended up following draft versions of the new 1968 building codes.[32] The tube-frame design, earlier introduced by Fazlur Khan, was a new approach that allowed more open floor plans than the traditional design that distributed columns throughout the interior to support building loads. The World Trade Center towers used high-strength, load-bearing perimeter steel columns called Vierendeel trusses that were spaced closely together to form a strong, rigid wall structure, supporting virtually all lateral loads such as wind loads, and sharing the gravity load with the core columns.
 
The perimeter structure containing 59 columns per side was constructed with extensive use of prefabricated modular pieces each consisting of three columns, three stories tall, connected by spandrel plates.[32] The spandrel plates were welded to the columns to create the modular pieces off-site at the fabrication shop.[33] Adjacent modules were bolted together with the splices occurring at mid-span of the columns and spandrels. The spandrel plates were located at each floor, transmitting shear stress between columns, allowing them to work together in resisting lateral loads. The joints between modules were staggered vertically so the column splices between adjacent modules were not at the same floor.[32]
 
The core of the towers housed the elevator and utility shafts, restrooms, three stairwells, and other support spaces. The core of each tower was a rectangular area 87 by 135 feet (27 by 41 m) and contained 47 steel columns running from the bedrock to the top of the tower. The large, column-free space between the perimeter and core was bridged by prefabricated floor trusses. The floors supported their own weight as well as live loads, providing lateral stability to the exterior walls and distributing wind loads among the exterior walls.[34]
 
 The floors consisted of 4 inches (10 cm) thick lightweight concrete slabs laid on a fluted steel deck. A grid of lightweight bridging trusses and main trusses supported the floors.[35] The trusses connected to the perimeter at alternate columns and were on 6 foot 8 inch (2.03 m) centers. The top chords of the trusses were bolted to seats welded to the spandrels on the exterior side and a channel welded to the core columns on the interior side. The floors were connected to the perimeter spandrel plates with viscoelastic dampers that helped reduce the amount of sway felt by building occupants.
 
Hat trusses (or "outrigger truss") located from the 107th floor to the top of the buildings were designed to support a tall communication antenna on top of each building.[35] Only 1 WTC (north tower) actually had an antenna fitted; it was added in 1978.[36] The truss system consisted of six trusses along the long axis of the core and four along the short axis. This truss system allowed some load redistribution between the perimeter and core columns and supported the transmission tower.[35]
The tube frame design using steel core and perimeter columns protected with sprayed-on fire resistant material created a relatively lightweight structure that would sway more in response to the wind compared to traditional structures such as the Empire State Building that have thick, heavy masonry for fireproofing of steel structural elements.[37]
 
 During the design process, wind tunnel tests were done to establish design wind pressures that the World Trade Center towers could be subjected to and structural response to those forces.[38] Experiments also were done to evaluate how much sway occupants could comfortably tolerate, however, many subjects experienced dizziness and other ill effects.[39] One of the chief engineers Leslie Robertson worked with Canadian engineer Alan G. Davenport to develop viscoelastic dampers to absorb some of the sway. These viscoelastic dampers, used throughout the structures at the joints between floor trusses and perimeter columns along with some other structural modifications, reduced the building sway to an acceptable level.[40]

Construction

 
In March 1965, the Port Authority began acquiring property at the World Trade Center site.[41] Demolition work began on March 21, 1966, to clear thirteen square blocks of low rise buildings in Radio Row for construction of the World Trade Center.[42] Groundbreaking for the construction of the World Trade Center took place on August 5, 1966.[43]The site of the World Trade Center was located on landfill with the bedrock located 65 feet (20 m) below.[44] To construct the World Trade Center, it was necessary to build a "bathtub" with a slurry wall around the West Street side of the site, to keep water from the Hudson River out.[45]
 
 The slurry method selected by Port Authority's chief engineer, John M. Kyle, Jr., involved digging a trench, and as excavation proceeded, filling the space with a "slurry" mixture composed of bentonite and water, which plugged holes and kept groundwater out. When the trench was dug out, a steel cage was inserted and concrete was poured in, forcing the "slurry" out. It took fourteen months for the slurry wall to be completed; it was necessary before excavation of material from the interior of the site could begin.[46] The 1.2 million cubic yards (917,000 m3) of material excavated were used (along with other fill and dredge material) to expand the Manhattan shoreline across West Street to form Battery Park City.[47][48]
 
 
In January 1967, the Port Authority awarded $74 million in contracts to various steel suppliers, and Karl Koch was hired to erect the steel.[49]Tishman Realty & Construction was hired in February 1967 to oversee construction of the project.[50] Construction work began on the North Tower in August 1968; construction on the South Tower was underway by January 1969.[51] The original Hudson Tubes, carrying PATH trains into Hudson Terminal, remained in service as elevated tunnels during the construction process until 1971 when a new PATH station opened.[52]
 
The topping out ceremony of 1 WTC (North Tower) took place on December 23, 1970, while 2 WTC's ceremony (South Tower) occurred later on July 19, 1971.[51] The first tenants moved into the North Tower in December 1970; the South Tower accepted tenants in January 1972.[53] When the World Trade Center twin towers were completed, the total costs to the Port Authority had reached $900 million.[54] The ribbon cutting ceremony was on April 4, 1973.[55]

Criticism

Plans to build the World Trade Center were controversial. The site for the World Trade Center was the location of Radio Row, home to hundreds of commercial and industrial tenants, property owners, small businesses, and approximately 100 residents, many of whom fiercely resisted forced relocation.[56] A group of small businesses affected filed an injunction challenging the Port Authority's power of eminent domain.[57] The case made its way through the court system to the United States Supreme Court; the Court refused to accept the case.[58]
 
Private real estate developers and members of the Real Estate Board of New York, led by Empire State Building owner Lawrence A. Wien, expressed concerns about this much "subsidized" office space going on the open market, competing with the private sector when there was already a glut of vacancies.[59][60] The World Trade Center itself was not rented out completely until after 1979.[61] Others questioned whether the Port Authority really ought to take on a project described by some as a "mistaken social priority".[62]
 
The World Trade Center design brought criticism of its aesthetics from the American Institute of Architects and other groups.[28][63]Lewis Mumford, author of The City in History and other works on urban planning, criticized the project and described it and other new skyscrapers as "just glass-and-metal filing cabinets".[64] The twin towers' narrow office windows, only 18 inches (46 cm) wide and framed by pillars that restricted views on each side to narrow slots, were disliked by many.[27] Activist and sociologist Jane Jacobs also criticized plans for the WTC's construction, arguing that the waterfront should be kept open for New Yorkers to enjoy.[65]
 
The trade center's "superblock", replacing a more traditional, dense neighborhood, was regarded by some critics as an inhospitable environment that disrupted the complicated traffic network typical of Manhattan. For example, in his book The Pentagon of Power, Lewis Mumford denounced the center as an "example of the purposeless giantism and technological exhibitionism that are now eviscerating the living tissue of every great city".[66]For many years, the immense Austin J. Tobin Plaza was often beset by brisk winds at ground level owing to the venturi effect between the two towers.[67] In fact, some gusts were so high that pedestrian travel had to be aided by ropes.[68] In 1999, the outdoor plaza reopened after undergoing $12 million renovations, which involved replacing marble pavers with gray and pink granite stones, adding new benches, planters, new restaurants, food kiosks and outdoor dining areas.[69]

Complex

North and South towers

 
With the construction of 7 World Trade Center in the 1980s, the World Trade Center had a total of seven buildings, but the most notable were the main two towers. Each stood over 1,350 feet (410 m) high, and occupied about one acre (43,560 square feet) of the total 16 acres (65,000 m2) of the site's land. During a press conference in 1973, Yamasaki was asked, "Why two 110-story buildings? Why not one 220-story building?" His response was: "I didn't want to lose the human scale."[70]
 
When completed in 1972, 1 World Trade Center (the North Tower) became the tallest building in the world for two years, surpassing the Empire State Building after a 40-year reign. The North Tower stood 1,368 feet (417 m) tall and featured a telecommunications antenna or mast that was added at the top of the roof in 1978 and stood 360 feet (110 m) tall. With the 360-foot (110 m)-tall antenna/mast, the highest point of the North Tower reached 1,728 ft (527 m). 2 World Trade Center (the South Tower) became the second tallest building in the world when completed in 1973. The South Tower's rooftop observation deck was 1,362 ft (415 m) high and its indoor observation deck was 1,310 ft (400 m) high.[71]
 
The World Trade Center towers held the height record only briefly: Chicago's Sears Tower, finished in May 1973, reached 1,450 feet (440 m) at the rooftop.[72] Throughout their existence, however, the WTC towers had more floors (at 110) than any other building. This number was not surpassed until the advent of the Burj Khalifa, which opened in 2010. Of the 110 stories, eight were set aside for technical services in mechanical floors Level B5/B6 (floors 7/8, 41/42, 75/76, and 108/109), which are four two-floor areas that evenly spaced up the building. All the remaining floors were free for open-plan offices. Each floor of the towers had 40,000 square feet (3,700 m2) of space for occupancy.[25] Each tower had 3,800,000 square feet (350,000 m2) of office space. Altogether the entire complex of seven buildings had 11,200,000 square feet (1,040,000 m2) of space.
 
Initially conceived as a complex dedicated to companies and organizations directly taking part in "world trade", they at first failed to attract the expected clientele. During the early years, various governmental organizations became key tenants of the World Trade Center including the State of New York. It was not until the 1980s that the city's perilous financial state eased, after which an increasing number of private companies—mostly financial firms tied to Wall Street—became tenants. During the 1990s, approximately 500 companies had offices in the complex including many financial companies such as Morgan Stanley, Aon Corporation, Salomon Brothers and the Port Authority itself. The basement concourse of the World Trade Center included The Mall at the World Trade Center,[73] along with a PATH station.[74] The North Tower became the home of the corporate headquarters of Cantor Fitzgerald,[75] and it also became the headquarters of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey.[76]
 
Electrical service to the towers was supplied by Consolidated Edison (ConEd) at 13,800 volts. This service passed through the World Trade Center Primary Distribution Center (PDC) and sent up through the core of the building to electrical substations located on the mechanical floors. The substations stepped down the 13,800 primary voltage to 480/277 volt secondary service, and then further down to 208/120 volt general power and lighting service. The complex also was served by emergency generators located in the sub-levels of the towers and on the roof of 5 WTC.[77][78]
 
The 110th floor of 1 World Trade Center (the North Tower) housed radio and television transmission equipment. The roof of 1 WTC contained a vast array of transmission antennas including the 360 ft (approx 110 m) center antenna mast, rebuilt in 1999 by Dielectric Inc. to accommodate DTV. The center mast contained the television signals for almost all NYC television broadcasters: WCBS-TV 2, WNBC-TV 4, WNYW 5, WABC-TV 7, WPIX 11, WNET 13 Newark, WPXN-TV 31 and WNJU 47 Linden. It also had four NYC FM broadcasters: WPAT-FM 93.1, WNYC 93.9, WKCR 89.9, and WKTU 103.5. Access to the roof was controlled from the WTC Operations Control Center (OCC) located in the B1 level of 2 WTC.
Enhanced by Zemanta
↧

Blood Group Donors Chart

September 10, 2013, 12:49 am
↧
↧

World Trade Center in Pictures

September 10, 2013, 1:01 am
$
0
0


 World Trade Center in Pictures





















Enhanced by Zemanta
↧

Raising Hunger and Economic Genocide

September 10, 2013, 1:05 am
$
0
0
Raising Hunger and Economic Genocide
Enhanced by Zemanta
↧

Fukushima Crises Facts

September 10, 2013, 1:11 am
↧
Search

Facts and Information on Blood Group Types

September 10, 2013, 3:26 am
$
0
0
Red blood cells on an agar plate are used to d...
Red blood cells on an agar plate are used to diagnose infection. The plate on the left shows a positive staphylococcus infection. The plate on the right shows a positive streptococcus infection and with the halo effect shows specifically a beta-hemolytic group A. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)
Blood Type Facts:
There are eight different common blood types, which are determined by the presence or absence of certain antigens, which are substances that can trigger an immune response if they are foreign to the human body. Since some antigens can trigger a patient's immune system to attack the transfused blood, safe blood transfusions depend on careful blood typing and cross-matching.
There are 4 major blood groups determined by the presence or absence of two antigens (A and B) on the surface of red blood cells:
Blood GroupAntigen
AHas only A antigen on red cells (and B antibody in the plasma)
BHas only B antigen on red cells (and A antibody in the plasma)
ABHas both A and B antigens on red cells (but neither A nor B antibody in the plasma)
OHas neither A nor B antigens on red cells (but both A and B antibody are in the plasma)

In addition to the A and B antigens, there is a third antigen called the Rh factor, which can be either present (+) or absent ( – ). In general, Rh negative blood is given to Rh-negative patients, and Rh positive blood or Rh negative blood may be given to Rh positive patients.
  • The universal red cell donor has Type O negative blood type.
  • The universal plasma donor has Type AB positive blood type.
Donating Blood by Compatible Type:
Blood types are very important when a blood transfusion is necessary. In a blood transfusion, a patient must receive a blood type compatible with his or her own blood type. If the blood types are not compatible, red blood cells will clump together, making clots that can block blood vessels and cause death.
If two different blood types are mixed together, the blood cells may begin to clump together in the blood vessels, causing a potentially fatal situation. Therefore, it is important that blood types be matched before blood transfusions take place. In an emergency, type O blood can be given because it is most likely to be accepted by all blood types. However, there is still a risk involved.
Blood TypeDonate Blood ToReceive Blood From
A+A+   AB+A+   A-   O+   O-
O+O+   A+   B+   AB+O+   O-
B+B+   AB+B+   B-   O+   O-
AB+AB+Everyone
A-A+   A-   AB+   AB-A-   O-
O-EveryoneO-
B-B+   B-   AB+   AB-B-   O-
AB-AB+   AB-AB-   A-   B-   O-

Finding Out Your Blood Type:
It is easy and inexpensive to determine a person's ABO type from a few drops of blood. A serum containing anti-A antibodies is mixed with some of the blood. Another serum with anti-B antibodies is mixed with the remaining sample. Whether or not agglutination occurs in either sample indicates the ABO type. It is a simple process of elimination of the possibilities. For instance, if an individual's blood sample is agglutinated by the anti-A antibody, but not the anti-B antibody, it means that the A antigen is present but not the B antigen. Therefore, the blood type is A.
Blood type is inherited, just like eye color. This chart shows the possible blood type of a child according to their parents blood group:
Parent AABABABABBAAOOO
Parent BABBAOBBABAO
Child's Possible Blood Type
O
A
AB

* Note: In most cases, blood typing is not conclusive when attempting to determine, include or exclude an individual as the parent of a child or children.
While blood types are 100% genetically inherited, the environment potentially can determine which blood types in a population will be passed on more frequently to the next generation. It does this through natural selection. Specific ABO blood types are thought to be linked with increased or decreased susceptibility to particular diseases.
What Does Blood Group RH Factor Mean?
RH factor in blood types stands for "Rhesus Factor". Blood tests were performed on Rhesus monkeys and the Rh+ and Rh- factors were isolated. An antigen found in the red blood cells of most people: those who have Rh factor are said to be Rh positive (Rh+), while those who do not are Rh negative (Rh-). What about the meaning of RHD? - Rh blood group, D antigen. The rhesus complex is not just one antigen, but several, when someone is told to be Rh+, it usually refers to the D antigen (one of the components of the Rh complex), because it's the most common, and the easiest to identify, however it's not the only one.
What is the Rarest Blood Type?
According to the American Red Cross the rarest is AB(-), present in 1% of the Caucasians, in African Americans it is even rarer. B(-) and O(-) are also very rare, each accounting for less than 5% of the world's population. Some people with rare blood types bank their own blood in advance of surgical procedures to ensure that blood is available to them.
Blood Type Diet:
The Eat Right for Your Type diet encourages people to eat certain foods and avoid others based on their blood type A, B, AB, or O.
The Diet is Based on:
  • Type A ("for agrarian") flourishes on vegetarian diets, "the inheritance of their more settled and less warlike farmer ancestors," says D'Adamo. The type A diet contains soy proteins, grains, and organic vegetables and encourages gentle exercise.
  • The nomadic blood type B has a tolerant digestive system and can enjoy low-fat dairy, meat, and produce but, among other things, should avoid wheat, corn, and lentils, D'Adamo says. If you're type B, it's recommended you exercise moderately.
  • Type O ("for old," as in humanity's oldest blood line) your digestive tract retains the memory of ancient times, says D'Adamo, so you're metabolism will benefit from lean meats, poultry, and fish. You're advised to restrict grains, breads, and legumes, and to enjoy vigorous exercise.
  • Type AB has a sensitive digestive tract and should avoid chicken, beef, and pork but enjoy seafood, tofu, dairy, and most produce. The fitness regimen for ABs is calming exercises.
NOTE: Critics cite a lack of published evidence backing D'Adamo's blood type-based diet plan.
Blood Type and Your Personality:
Legend has it that blood type tells about personality. In Japan, it's widely believed that blood groups predict personality traits - from temperament to compatibility, to what kind of lover you are to what type of foods you should be eating. For instance Type A is calm and trustworthy; Type B is creative and excitable; Type AB is thoughtful and emotional; and Type O is a confident leader.
Printable Charts:
Printable chart showing compatible blood types for recieving blood transfusions

Printable chart showing possible blood type of a child according to their parents blood group
Enhanced by Zemanta
↧
↧

Types of Diabetes Including Diabetic Diagnosis, Symptoms and Treatment

September 10, 2013, 3:35 am
$
0
0
English: Overview of the most significant poss...
 Overview of the most significant possible symptoms of diabetes. See Wikipedia:Diabetes#Signs_and_symptoms for references. Model: Mikael Häggström. To discuss image, please see Template talk:Häggström diagrams
Diabetes is referred to by the medical world as, 'Diabetes Mellitus,' and is a set of diseases where the person's body is unable to regulate the amount of sugar in their blood. The particular form of sugar that the person with diabetes is unable to regulate is called, 'glucose,' and is used in the body to give the person energy in order to do things in daily life such as walking, running, riding a bike, exercising, or other tasks. From food that people eat, the liver produces glucose and puts it into their blood.
 
In persons without diabetes, glucose levels are regulated by a number of hormones including one known as, 'Insulin.' An organ called the, 'Pancreas,' produces insulin, and also secretes additional enzymes which aid in the digestion of food. Insulin helps the movement of glucose through a person's blood into different cells, including muscle, fat, and liver cells so it can be used to fuel activity.
Persons with diabetes who have Type 1 diabetes do not produce enough insulin. Persons with Type 2 diabetes are unable to use insulin properly. Several forms of diabetes involve the inability to both produce or use insulin properly. Persons with diabetes are unable to move glucose from their blood into their cells.
 
The result is that the glucose remains in their blood, and damage occurs to the cells that need glucose for energy to perform activities, as well as harming tissues and organs that are exposed to increased amounts of glucose that has not been sent to the cells it should have gone to.
 
Type 1 Diabetes: Type 1 Diabetes occurs when the body produces insufficient amounts of insulin, or stops producing insulin altogether; the body does not produce enough insulin to regulate the amount of glucose in the person's blood. Approximately ten-percent of persons with diabetes in America have Type 1 Diabetes, and it is commonly recognized in people when they are in childhood or during their teenage years. Former names for Type 1 Diabetes include, 'Juvenile-Onset Diabetes,' and, 'Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus.' Persons who are older can develop Type 1 Diabetes due to destruction of their pancreas. Things such as damage caused by disease or alcohol, or having the pancreas removed during surgery, or a progressive failure of pancreatic beta cells that produce insulin can cause Type 1 Diabetes. Persons with this form of diabetes need insulin treatment on a daily basis in order to remain alive.
 
Type 2 Diabetes: Type 2 Diabetes occurs when a person's body becomes either partially, or completely, unable to use insulin. Their pancreas may still secrete insulin, but they have become what the medical field refers to as, 'Insulin-Resistant.' Their body attempts to fight this resistance by producing even more insulin. A person who is insulin-resistance develops Type 2 Diabetes once they cannot continue to secrete enough insulin to meet the body's demands.
Approximately ninety-percent of persons with diabetes have Type 2 diabetes, which is usually recognized when the person is an adult; commonly when they are over forty-five years of age. Other names this form of diabetes has been known by include, 'Non-Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus,' or, 'Adult-Onset Diabetes Mellitus.' These other names are no longer appropriate because persons who are younger have this form of diabetes, and persons with Type 2 diabetes may also need to use insulin. Control of Type 2 Diabetes usually involves weight loss, diet, oral medications, and exercise.
 
Gestational Diabetes: Gestational Diabetes occurs when a woman is approximately halfway through pregnancy. Women who have this form of diabetes are more likely to have larger babies than women who do not have Gestational Diabetes. Women who experience Gestational Diabetes often find that it simply goes away, once they have delivered the baby, although women who have this form of diabetes are more likely to develop Type 2 Diabetes at a later point in their life.
 
Metabolic Syndrome: Metabolic Syndrome involves a series of abnormalities, of which Type 2 Diabetes is a part. The syndrome involves not only Type 2 Diabetes, but high fat levels in the person's blood, hypertension, decreased HDL cholesterol, elevated LDL cholesterol, blood clotting, inflammatory responses, and central obesity. Metabolic Syndrome has a high rate of Cardiovascular Disease associated with it, and is also referred to as, 'Syndrome X.'
 
Pre-Diabetes: Pre-Diabetes is a condition that is related to Diabetes that has the potential to be reversed through both weight loss and exercise, which can prevent Type 2 Diabetes from occurring. Pre-Diabetes increases a person's risk of not only developing Type 2 Diabetes, but their risk of either a stroke, or heart disease. Persons with Pre-Diabetes experience blood sugar levels which are higher than they should be, yet are not high enough to be considered either Type 1 or Type 2 Diabetes.
Approximately one-third of the adults in North America who have diabetes are unaware that they have it. Around seventeen million adults in North America are aware that they have Diabetes, and one-million people each year are diagnosed with diabetes. Diabetes is found to be either the direct cause or a contributing factor in two-hundred thousand deaths each year, and the numbers of persons being diagnosed with diabetes is increasing rapidly. Obesity and sedentary lifestyles are among many reasons why diabetes is increasing.
 
Complications of Diabetes
Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes eventually lead to excessive levels of sugar in the blood; this condition is referred to as, 'Hyperglycemia.' Hyperglycemia damages the body in several ways, including damage to a person's kidneys, nerves, eyes, and blood vessels. The damage done through Hyperglycemia to a person's kidneys is known as, 'Diabetic Nephropathy,' and is a leading cause of kidney failure. The damage done to a person's nerves is referred to as, 'Diabetic Neuropathy,' and causes both foot wounds and ulcers, commonly leading to either foot or leg amputations. Damages to a person's Autonomic Nervous System can lead to a condition known as, 'Gastroparesis,' or paralysis of their stomach; it can also cause chronic diarrhea, and an inability in the person's body to control heart rate and blood pressure as they change posture. 'Diabetic Retinopathy,' is the medical name for damage done to a person's retinas in their eyes, and is a leading cause of blindness.
Diabetes can accelerate the formation of fatty plaque deposits inside a person's arteries or, 'Atherosclerosis,' leading to a clot or blockages. Results of the formation of these deposits can include a decrease in the circulation in the person's legs and arms called, 'Peripheral Vascular Disease,' or even a heart attack or stroke. Diabetes presents people who have it with a predisposition for such things as high cholesterol, high triglyceride levels, and high blood pressure. These conditions alone increase the risk of heart disease, blood vessel complications, and kidney disease; along with Hyperglycemia, the risks are even greater.
There are a number of infections that are associated with Diabetes which are often times more dangerous for a person who has diabetes due to their body's reduced ability to fight infections. For a person with diabetes, an infection may make control of glucose levels more difficult, delaying recovery from an infection.
 
Hypoglycemia occurs when a person with diabetes has a blood sugar level that is too low, which happens occasionally. When the person misses a meal, or exercises more than they usually do, or takes too much insulin or medication; drinks too much alcohol, or takes certain other medications in other conditions - they may become Hypoglycemic. The symptoms of Hypoglycemia include hand tremor, headaches, sweating, feeling dizzy, and poor concentration. Persons experiencing Hypoglycemia may faint, or experience a seizure if their blood sugar level becomes too low.
Diabetic Ketoacidosis involves uncontrolled Hyperglycemia and is a serious condition. It is usually caused by a highly inadequate level of insulin in a person's body which, over time, causes a buildup in their blood of Ketones. Ketones are acidic waste products, and are harmful to the body. Diabetic Ketoacidosis commonly affects persons with Type 1 Diabetes who don't have good control of their blood glucose levels. Trauma, infection, stress, missing medications such as insulin, or even a stroke or heart attack can precipitate Diabetic Ketoacidosis.
 
Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic Nonketotic Syndrome is another serious condition that can affect persons with diabetes, and occurs when the person's blood sugar becomes very high. Their body attempts to rid itself of the excessive amounts of blood sugar through urinary output, which is increased significantly, often leading to dehydration. Persons with this syndrome can become so dehydrated that they may experience seizures, coma, or even die. Persons with Type 2 Diabetes who are not making efforts to control their blood sugar levels and have become dehydrated, are under stress, have experienced an injury, a stroke, or are taking some medications such as steroids, are typically those who experience this syndrome.
 
Causes of Diabetes
 
Type 1 Diabetes: Type 1 Diabetes is something that is believed to be an autoimmune disease. The immune system in the person's body attacks the cells within the pancreas which produces insulin. There may be a predisposition to the development of Type 1 Diabetes in some families. There are some environmental factors, including some viral infections which are common that can also contribute to causing Type 1 Diabetes. Persons who are of Non-Hispanic, Northern European descent most commonly develop Type 1 Diabetes, followed by African Americans and Hispanic Americans. Persons of Asian descent rarely have Type 1 Diabetes. Slightly more men than women have Type 1 Diabetes.
 
Type 2 Diabetes: is something that has strong genetic links, and tends to run in families. Several of the genes involved have been identified; more are being studied that may be related to causes of Type 2 diabetes. There are several risk factors for developing Type 2 Diabetes. The risk factors include a high-fat diet, consuming high amounts of alcohol, a sedentary lifestyle, high blood pressure, high triglyceride levels, obesity, and Gestational Diabetes. Persons with a relative who had either Type 2 diabetes or Gestational Diabetes are at greater risk of developing Type 2 Diabetes. African Americans, Native Americans, Hispanic Americans, and Japanese Americans are at greater risk of developing Type 2 Diabetes. The risk of developing Type 2 Diabetes increases at age forty-five, and increases significantly after a person reaches age sixty-five.
 
Symptoms of Diabetes
 
Symptoms of Type 1 Diabetes may appear suddenly and are often dramatic. Increased stress may cause Diabetic Ketoacidosis, with symptoms that include vomiting and nausea followed by dehydration and serious disturbances in the person's blood levels of potassium. If the person is not treated, they may experience a coma, or die.
 
Symptoms of Type 2 Diabetes are many times subtle. They might be attributed to either obesity, or aging. Type 2 Diabetes may be precipitated by either stress, or steroids. Persons with Type 2 Diabetes may develop Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar Nonketotic Syndrome. One of the more dismaying facts about Type 2 Diabetes is the a person may have it for years without knowing it.
 
Symptoms Common to Both Major Types of Diabetes
 
Fatigue: For persons with diabetes, their body cannot efficiently use glucose to provide energy, or is unable to at all. Instead, their body either partially or completely metabolizes fat as a source for energy, requiring more energy. The result of the body doing this is that the person feels fatigued or consistently tired.
 
Unexplained Weight Loss: Persons with diabetes are not able to process many of the calories the consume. Because of this, they might lose weight, even though the person might eat what seems to be an appropriate amount or even an excessive amount of food. Loss of sugars and water through urinary output and through dehydration can also contribute to weight loss in persons with diabetes.
 
Excessive Thirst: Persons with diabetes may develop high blood sugar levels which then overwhelm their kidney's ability to reabsorb sugars as their blood is filtered to produce urine. An excessive amount of urine is produced by their body as their kidney attempts to get rid of excess sugar, and the body attempts to counteract this by telling the brain to dilute their blood, translating it as a message to the person telling them they are thirsty. The body encourages water consumption in an effort to dilute high levels of blood sugar and reduce it to normal levels, as well as to compensate for any water that has been lost through increased urination. Excessive thirst in persons with diabetes is also referred to as, 'Polydipsia.' Excessive urination is referred to as, 'Polyuria.'
 
Excessive Eating: If the body of a person with diabetes is able to, it will secrete additional insulin in an effort to deal with higher blood sugar levels. Their body is also resistant to the action of insulin in Type 2 Diabetes, on of the functions of which is to stimulate hunger, and higher insulin level may lead to an increase in the person's hunger and the amount they eat. Despite eating more the person might gain very little weight; in fact - they may lose weight.
 
Poor Healing of Wounds: The presence of high levels of blood sugar prevents white blood cells, which are important in the body's defense against bacteria and in cleaning up dead tissue and cells, from working properly. Improper cell function leads to wounds which take longer to heal and have the potential to become infected more often. Diabetes that has been present for a lengthy period of time is associated with thickening of the blood vessels. This can prevent proper circulation, which is needed in order to deliver nutrients and oxygen to tissues in the body.
 
Infections: Some infection syndromes such as skin infections, urinary tract infections, and repetitive yeast infections, can be the result of a suppression of the person's immune system by diabetes through the presence of glucose in their tissues, which allows bacteria to grow. These skin infection syndromes may be an indicator of inadequate blood sugar control in persons with diabetes.
 
Altered Mental Status: Altered Mental Status in persons with diabetes may include inattention, confusion, extreme lethargy, agitation, or unexplained irritability. All of these may be signs that the person has one of several things, including ketoacidosis, hyperosmolar hyperglycemia nonketotic syndrome, high blood sugar, or hypoglycemia. Any of these conditions require immediate medical attention.
 
Blurry Vision: Persons with diabetes who have high blood sugar levels may experience blurry vision. There are other conditions that may cause blurry vision as well that are not specific to diabetes.
 
Testing and Exams for Diabetes
There are some tests that are used in order to diagnose diabetes, as well as to monitor blood sugar levels in persons who have already been diagnosed. If the person is presenting symptoms, but is not diagnosed with diabetes, evaluation should start with a complete medical interview followed by a physical exam. A health care provider asks about things such as the person's past medical issues, the symptoms they are experiencing, their risk factors for diabetes, and any medications they are currently taking. The health care provider will also ask about the person's family and whether there is a history of diabetes, their lifestyle and habits, and any other medical issues they may be experiencing.
Several laboratory tests are available to both health care providers and people in order to confirm a diagnosis of Diabetes.
 
Finger Stick Blood Glucose Test: This test can be performed in community-based screening programs, or anywhere, and provides rapid results. The test is not as accurate as blood testing in a laboratory; however, it provides rapid results, and it is very easy to perform. The results are accurate within ten-percent of laboratory values. Testing involves a minor fingerstick of the person's finger in order to obtain a tiny blood sample, which is then placed onto a strip. The strip is placed into a small machine that interprets the person's blood sugar level. At very high or low blood sugar levels, the fingerstick test may prove inaccurate, and is considered a preliminary screening. The majority of persons with diabetes use the fingerstick test to monitor their blood sugar levels.
 
Fasting Plasma Glucose Test: The Fasting Plasma Glucose Test involves asking the person to abstain from eating or drinking anything for eight hours prior to having a blood sample drawn. From the person's blood sample, information related to their glucose level is taken. If the person's glucose level while they are fasting is greater than or equal to 126 mg/dl they most likely have diabetes. If these findings are found in a person who has not been diagnosed with diabetes, a doctor may have the test repeated on another day in order to confirm the results. A doctor may have the person go through an, 'Oral Glucose Tolerance Test,' or possibly a, 'Glycosylated Hemoglobin Test,' commonly referred to as a, 'Hemoglobin A1c,' test for confirmation purposes.
If the person has a fasting glucose level that is more than 100, but less than 126 mg/dl - they are considered to have Pre-Diabetes. They do not yet have Diabetes, but they are at greater risk of developing it in the near future.
 
Oral Glucose Tolerance Test: An Oral Glucose Tolerance Test involves first drawing the person's fasting blood sugar level, and then drawing another blood sugar level two hours after they have consumed a drink containing seventy-five grams of sugar. If the person's blood sugar level after they have consumed the sugar drink is greater than or equal to 200 mg/dl they have Diabetes. If their blood sugar level is between 140 and 199 mg/dl, they are considered to have Pre-Diabetes.
G
lycosylated Hemoglobin, or 'Hemoglobin A1c,' Test: The Hemoglobin A1c test measures how high the person's blood sugar levels have been over the last 120 days. The test involves drawing a blood sample, and is the best way to measure blood sugar control in persons with diabetes. If the test results show 7% or less, the person has good blood glucose control. If the person has 8% or higher test results, their blood sugar has been to high for too long.
The Hemoglobin A1c test in not as reliable for use in diagnosing diabetes, and is used more for follow-up care. Results showing greater than 6.1% are indicative of Diabetes, although confirmation testing would be needed before a diagnosis is reached. The test is commonly performed every three to six months for persons with diabetes. Persons who are having trouble maintaining control of their blood sugar levels may have the test done more often to help them maintain good control of their blood sugar levels.
 
Diagnosis the Complications of Diabetes
Persons with diabetes should have regular checkups to check for signs of complications caused by diabetes. Their regular health care provider can do many of these checks, others may need to be done by a specialist. The checks that need to be done include having their eyes checked at least once a year by an eye specialist to look for Diabetic Retinopathy. The persons urine needs to be checked on a regular basis; at least two or three times a year, because protein in their urine may be a sign of Nephropathy.
Health care providers can check the sensation in a person with diabetes legs using a tuning fork or monofilament device to check for Diabetic Neuropathy. They can also check the person's lower legs and feet for things like blisters, cuts, scrapes or other lesions that may become infected. Persons with diabetes need regular screening for high cholesterol and high blood pressure, which can contribute to heart disease.
T
reatment of Diabetes at Home
Diet, exercise, and other healthy habits can help persons with diabetes to improve their blood sugar control, as well as help them to either minimize or prevent entirely complications of diabetes.
 
Diet: A healthy diet is the key to control of blood sugar levels in persons with diabetes, and in the prevention of complications of diabetes. Persons who are overweight and having difficulty losing weight can work with their health care provider to find a dietician, or a weight modification program to help them reach their goal weight. Eating a consistent and well-balanced diet which is low in saturated fat and concentrated sweets, as well as high in fiber, in about the same number of calories at the same times each day is the best thing. Doing so helps the person's health care provider to prescribe appropriate doses of either insulin or medication, and helps to keep blood sugar levels fairly even - as well as helping to avoid dangerously high or low blood sugar levels.
E
xercise: Any form of exercise, done on a regular basis, can help to reduce the risk of developing diabetes in the first place. Exercise and also help to reduce risking complications of diabetes such as kidney failure, heart disease, leg ulcers, and blindness. Any form of exercise is beneficial; even twenty minutes of walking three times a week has proven beneficial. Some exercise is better than none at all. Some persons with diabetes who have experienced complications may wish to speak with a health care provider and ask them about an appropriate exercise program.
 
Alcohol Consumption: Persons with diabetes should either moderate, or eliminate their consumption of alcohol. They should not have more than seven drinks containing alcohol in a week; never more than two or three in one evening. One drink is 1.5 ounces of liquor, 12 ounces of beer, or 6 ounces of wine. For persons with Type 2 Diabetes, alcohol is a known risk factor for Neuritis, high or low blood sugar levels, and increased triglycerides.
 
Smoking: Persons with diabetes who smoke; no matter if it involves cigarettes, a pipe, a cigar, or another form of tobacco - increase their risk markedly for every complication of diabetes. Persons with diabetes who use tobacco and need help quitting should speak with their health care provider.
 
Blood Sugar Monitoring: Persons with diabetes need to check their blood sugar levels often. It is recommended that they check their blood sugar before meals, and before going to bed. They should record their blood sugar levels in a logbook, which also includes either insulin or medication doses and the times they were taken, what they have eaten and at what times, the exercise they have done, and any issues related to diabetes that were significant. A logbook provides highly useful information that a health care provider can use to see how the person is responding to treatment and other planning.
 
Medical Treatment of Diabetes
People are treated for diabetes individually depending on the type of diabetes they have. The form of treatment a health care worker provides also depends on whether or not the person has additional complications from diabetes and their general health at the time they are diagnosed. Treatment of diabetes involves lifestyle changes and blood sugar control, and creation of a plan to meet treatment goals.
Persons who have just been diagnosed with diabetes will often times find a care team spending a great deal of time educating them about the condition and its treatment, along with everything the person needs to know in regards to caring for themselves daily. The team includes not only a health care provider and their staff members; but specialists involved with eye care, foot care, Neurology, Diabetes Education, and a Professional Dietician. The team interacts with the person who has diabetes at appropriate intervals to check on their progress and goals. Education is essential for persons with all types of diabetes.
 
Treatment of Type 1 Diabetes
Treatment of Type 1 Diabetes nearly always involves daily injections of insulin, usually in the form of a combination of short acting insulin. Insulin cannot be taken orally; if it were, the insulin would be destroyed in the person's stomach before it would be distributed in their bloodstream, which is where it is needed. The majority of persons with Type 1 Diabetes administer insulin injections to themselves. If someone else gives the person with diabetes their insulin injections, it is still important that the person with diabetes know how to administer the injection themselves in the event that another person is unavailable.
Persons with diabetes learn how to inject insulin from a trained professional, who will also show them how to store insulin; usually a Nurse who works with their health care provider, or diabetes educator. People with Type 1 Diabetes commonly inject insulin two or three times daily, usually around meal times. The amount of insulin they use depends on their individual needs as determined by their health care provider. There are some longer acting forms of insulin that are usually injected once or twice a day. Some persons with Type 1 Diabetes have the insulin they take administered continuously through an infusion pump in order to receive adequate control of their blood glucose levels.
If a person has taken insulin it is important that they eat because insulin will lower their blood sugar level whether they have eaten or not. If the person has taken insulin and not eaten, they risk hypoglycemia, also referred to as an, 'Insulin Reaction.' While persons with Type 1 Diabetes are learning how insulin affects them there is a period of time where they are adjusting. The adjustment period includes how different meals and exercise, as well as insulin affect them and their blood sugar levels.
It is important to learn to keep blood sugar levels as even as possible. Equally important is maintaining an accurate record of the person's insulin dosages and blood sugar levels; health care providers will need this information in order to provide treatment and management of diabetes for them. Pursuing a consistently healthy diet that is right for their weight and size is just as important in the effort to control the person's blood sugar levels.
Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes
Persons with Type 2 Diabetes may have the opportunity to lower their blood sugar levels without the need for medication, if their HbA1c test results warrant this opportunity. Losing weight and exercising are the best ways to lower blood sugar levels in persons with Type 2 Diabetes. If a person with this type of diabetes is presented with this opportunity, they may have from three to six months before their blood sugar and HbA1c test is checked again. If the blood sugar levels are still high in the results, the person will start taking oral diabetes medication to control blood sugar levels.
While on oral medication for Type 2 Diabetes, it is important to lose weight if the person is overweight, eat a healthy diet, and pursue appropriate exercise. The person's health care provider will monitor their progress while they are taking oral medication closely after they have started taking it to ensure that the proper dose is being administered, and to make sure that side-effects are at a minimum.
The person's health care provider may choose to combine two forms of medication in order to achieve blood sugar levels that are within an appropriate range. Over time, persons with Type 2 Diabetes may need insulin injections in order to achieve control of blood sugar levels. It is now becoming more common for persons with Type 2 Diabetes to use a combination of insulin injections and medication to control their blood sugar levels.
Diabetes Outlook
The leading cause of death in all industrialized nations is diabetes, and persons with diabetes have twice the risk of premature death than those who do not have it. Their prognosis is dependent on the type of diabetes they have, the development of any complications, as well as the control they have over their blood sugar levels.
Type 1 Diabetes
Approximately 15% of persons with Type 1 Diabetes die before reaching forty years of age; twenty-times the rate of that particular age group in the general population. Their most common cause of death is Diabetic Ketoacidosis, Heart Failure, or Kidney Failure. The prognosis for persons with Type 1 Diabetes may be improved through good blood sugar control, which has been proven to slow the progression of diabetes, or even prevent it, and even improve complications in persons with Type 1 Diabetes.
Type 2 Diabetes
Persons with Type 2 Diabetes who have been diagnosed while in their forties have a life-expectancy which is decreased by five to ten years because of the diagnosis. The leading cause of death among persons with this type of diabetes is Heart Disease. Strict blood pressure control and good blood sugar monitoring at a recommended level of less than 100 mg/dl, as well as, 'good cholesterol,' and the use of Aspirin when indicated, can slow down the progression of this type of diabetes or prevent or improve any complications.
Enhanced by Zemanta
↧

Vitamin Information

September 10, 2013, 3:48 am
$
0
0
Dietary supplements, such as the vitamin B sup...
Dietary supplements, such as the vitamin B supplement show above, are typically sold in pill form. 
A vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism. A compound is called a vitamin when it cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the diet. Thus, the term is conditional both on the circumstances and the particular organism. For example, ascorbic acid functions as vitamin C for some animals but not others, and vitamins D and K are required in the human diet only in certain circumstances. All natural vitamins are organic food substances found only in living things, that is, plants and animals. With few exceptions, the body cannot manufacture or synthesize vitamins. They must be supplied by the diet or in dietary supplements. Vitamins are essential to the normal functioning of our bodies. They are necessary for growth, vitality, health, general well being, and for the prevention and cure of many health problems and diseases.
 
Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure. Thus, each "vitamin" may refer to several vitamer compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals are grouped under an alphabetized vitamin "generic descriptor" title, such as "vitamin A," which includes the compounds retinal, retinol, and many carotenoids. Vitamers are often inter-converted in the body. The term vitamin does not include other essential nutrients such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids, nor does it encompass the large number of other nutrients that promote health but are otherwise required less often.
 
There are 13 vitamins your body needs.
They are vitamins A, C, D, E, K and the B vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, vitamin B-6, vitamin B-12 and folate). You can usually get all your vitamins from the foods you eat. Your body can also make vitamins D and K. People who eat a vegetarian diet may need to take a vitamin B12 supplement.
 
Vitamins are classified as either water-soluble or fat soluble.
In humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E and K) and 9 water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C).
 
Water-soluble - Water-soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water, and in general, are readily excreted from the body, to the degree that urinary output is a strong predictor of vitamin consumption. Because they are not readily stored, consistent daily intake is important. Many types of water-soluble vitamins are synthesized by bacteria.
 
Fat-soluble - Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the intestinal tract with the help of lipids (fats). Because they are more likely to accumulate in the body, they are more likely to lead to hypervitaminosis than are water-soluble vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamin regulation is of particular significance in cystic fibrosis.
Vitamin A is important for vision, reproductive function, and normal cell reproduction. Beta-carotene, a precursor to Vitamin A, helps to fight disease-causing free radicals. Vitamin A is found in milk products, organ meats, and fish oils. Beta-carotene is found in colorful vegetables, such as carrots, broccoli, spinach, and sweet potatoes.
Vitamin B-1 (thiamin) processes carbohydrates into energy and is necessary for nerve cell function. Breads and cereals are often fortified with thiamin, though it is also found in whole grains, fish, lean meats, and dried beans.
Vitamin B-2 (riboflavin) helps the production of red blood cells and is important for growth.
Vitamin B-3 (niacin) helps control cholesterol, processes alcohol, maintains healthy skin, and converts carbohydrates to energy.
Vitamin B-5 (pantothenic acid) serves several bodily functions, such as converting fats to energy and synthesizing cholesterol.
Vitamin B-6 (pyridoxine) is important in the production of hormones such as serotonin, dopamine, and melatonin, as well as for processing amino acids.
Vitamin B-12 is a crucial component of DNA replication and nerve cell regulation. It is found in milk products, poultry, meat, and shellfish.
Vitamin C is important in wound healing and acts as an antioxidant. It also helps the body absorb iron. It's found in citrus fruits, potatoes, and greens.
Vitamin D helps the body absorb calcium, which creates healthy bones and teeth. The body can synthesize Vitamin D after exposure to sunshine, but it can also be found in fortified milk products and cereals, as well as in fish.
Vitamin E helps to combat free radicals, which can damage our cells. It's found in nuts and seeds, green leafy vegetables, corn, asparagus, and wheat germ.
Vitamin K is what makes the blot clot. While our bodies produce some Vitamin K, it can also be found in vegetables like cauliflower and cabbage.
 
Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary.
A primary deficiency occurs when an organism does not get enough of the vitamin in its food. A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder that prevents or limits the absorption or use of the vitamin, due to a “lifestyle factor”, such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, or the use of medications that interfere with the absorption or use of the vitamin. People who eat a varied diet are unlikely to develop a severe primary vitamin deficiency. In contrast, restrictive diets have the potential to cause prolonged vitamin deficits, which may result in often painful and potentially deadly diseases.
Dietary supplements, often containing vitamins, are used to ensure that adequate amounts of nutrients are obtained on a daily basis, if optimal amounts of the nutrients cannot be obtained through a varied diet. Scientific evidence supporting the benefits of some dietary supplements is well established for certain health conditions, but others need further study.
The best way to get enough vitamins is to eat a balanced diet with a variety of foods. In some cases, you may need to take a daily multivitamin for optimal health. However, high doses of some vitamins can make you sick.
Enhanced by Zemanta
↧

Al-Masjid Al-Haram

September 10, 2013, 4:12 am
$
0
0
English: Masjid al-Haram, Mecca
English: Masjid al-Haram, Mecca 
Al-Masjid Al-Haram (Arabic: المسجد الحرام‎, The Sacred Mosque or The Grand Mosque)[1] is in the city of Mecca, Saudi Arabia. It is the largest mosque in the world and surrounds one of Islam's holiest places, the Kaaba.[2][3] Muslims face in the direction of the Kaaba while performing formal worship, salah. One of the Five Pillars of Islam requires every Muslim to perform the Hajj pilgrimage at least once in his or her lifetime if able to do so, includes circumambulation of the Kaaba.
The current structure covers an area of 356,800 square metres (88.2 acres) including the outdoor and indoor praying spaces and can accommodate up to two million worshipers during the Hajj period, one of the largest annual gatherings of people in the world. Unlike many other mosques which are segregated, men and women can worship at Al-Masjid Al-Haram together.

History

Pre-Muhammad

According to Islamic tradition the very first construction of the Kaaba, the heart of Al-Masjid Al-Haram, was undertaken by Abraham. The Qur'an said that this was the first house built for humanity to worship Allah.[Quran 3:96]
With the order of the God [Quran 22:26], Abraham and his son Ishmael found the original foundation and rebuild the Kaaba [Quran 2:125][Quran 2:127] in 2130 BCE.[citation needed] Hajar-Al-Aswad, the Black Stone situated on the lower side of the eastern corner of the Kaaba, is believed[by whom?] to be the only remnant of the original structure made by Abraham.
Muslim belief also places the story of Ishmael's mother searching for water in the general vicinity of the mosque. In the story, Hagar runs between the hills of Safa and Marwah looking for water for her infant son until God eventually reveals her the Zamzam.[citation needed] The "Zamzam well" and "Safa and Marwah" are structures in Al-Masjid al-Haram.

First Islamic Era

Upon Muhammad's victorious return to Mecca in 630, Muhammad and his son-in-law, Ali Ibn Abi Talib, broke all the idols in and around the Kaaba and ended its pagan use. This began the Islamic rule over the Kaaba and the building of Al-Masjid Al-Haram around it.[citation needed]
The first major renovation to the mosque took place in 692. Before this renovation, which included the mosque's outer walls being raised and decoration added to the ceiling, the mosque was a small open area with the Kaaba at the center. By the end of the 8th century, the Mosque's old wooden columns had been replaced with marble columns and the wings of the prayer hall had been extended on both sides along with the addition of a minaret. The spread of Islam in the Middle East and the influx of pilgrims required an almost complete rebuilding of the site which included adding more marble and three more minarets.[citation needed]

Ottomans

In 1570, SultanSelim II commissioned the chief architect Mimar Sinan to renovate the mosque. This renovation resulted in the replacement of the flat roof with domes decorated with calligraphy internally, and the placement of new support columns which are acknowledged as the earliest architectural features of the present mosque. These features are the oldest surviving parts of the building.
During the heavy rains and flash floods of 1621 and 1629, the walls of the Kaaba and the mosque suffered extensive damage.[4] In 1629, during the reign of Sultan Murad IV, the Kaaba was rebuilt with stones from Mecca and the mosque was renovated. In the renovation of the mosque, a new stone arcade was added, three more minarets (which made the total number 7) were built, and the marble flooring was retiled. This was the unaltered state of the mosque for nearly three centuries.

Saudis

The first major renovation under the Saudi kings was done between 1955 and 1973. In this renovation, four more minarets were added, the ceiling was refurnished, and the floor was replaced with artificial stone and marble. The Mas'a gallery (Al-Safa and Al-Marwah) is included in the Masjid via roofing and enclosements. During this renovation many of the historical features built by the Ottomans, particularly the support columns, were demolished.
The second Saudi renovations under King Fahd, added a new wing and an outdoor prayer area to the mosque. The new wing, which is also for prayers, is accessed through the King Fahd Gate. This extension is considered to have been from 1982–1988.
The third Saudi extension (1988–2005) saw the building of more minarets, the erecting of a King's residence overlooking the Masjid and more prayer area in and around the mosque itself. These developments have taken place simultaneously with those in Arafat, Mina and Muzdalifah. This third extension has also resulted in 18 more gates, three domes corresponding in position to each gate and the installation of nearly 500 marble columns. Other modern developments include the addition of heated floors, air conditioning, escalators and a drainage system.

Current expansion project

In 2007, the mosque went under a fourth extension project which is estimated to last until 2020. King Abdullah Ibn Abdul Azeez plans to increase the mosque's capacity to 2 million.[1][5]
Northern expansion of the mosque began in August 2011 and is expected to be completed in 1.5 years. The area of the mosque will be expanded from the current 356,000 m2 (3,830,000 sq ft) to 400,000 m2 (4,300,000 sq ft). A new gate named after King Abdullah will be built together with two new minarets, bringing their total to 11. The cost of the project is $10.6-billion and after completion the mosque will house over 2.5 million worshipers. The Mataf (the circumambulation areas around the Kaaba) will also see expansion and all closed spaces will be air conditioned.[6]

Controversies on expansion projects  

There has been some controversy that the expansion projects of the mosque and Mecca itself are causing harm to early Islamic heritage. Many ancient buildings, some more than a thousand years old, have been demolished to make room not only for the expansion of Al-Masjid Al-Haram, but for new malls and hotels.[7] Some examples are:[8][9]
  • Bayt Al-Mawlid, the house where Muhammad was born demolished and rebuilt as a library.
  • Dar Al-Arqam, the first Islamic school where Muhammad taught flattened to lay marble tiles.
  • The house of Abu Jahal has been demolished and replaced by public washrooms.
  • Dome which served as a canopy over the Well of Zamzam demolished.
  • Some Ottomanporticos at Al-Masjid Al-Haram demolished and the remaining under threat.
  • House of Muhammed in Medina where he lived after the migration from Mecca.

Religious significance

The importance of the mosque is twofold. It not only serves as the common direction towards which Muslims pray, but is also the main location for pilgrimages.

Qibla

 
The Qibla—the direction that Muslims turn to in their prayers (Salah)—is toward the Kaaba and symbolizes unity in worshiping one Allah (God). At one point the direction of the Qibla was toward Bayt Al-Maqdis (Jerusalem) (and is therefore called the First of the Two Qiblas),[citation needed] however, this only lasted for seventeen months, after which the Qibla became oriented towards the Kaaba in Mecca. According to accounts from Muhammad's companions, the change happened very suddenly during the noon prayer at Medina in the Masjid al-Qiblatain.

Pilgrimage

The Haram is the focal point of the Hajj and Umrah pilgrimages[10] that occur in the month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the Islamic calendar and at any time of the year, respectively. The Hajj pilgrimage is one of the Pillars of Islam, required of all able-bodied Muslims who can afford the trip. In recent times, about 3 million Muslims perform the Hajj every year.
Some of the rituals performed by pilgrims are symbolic of historical incidents. For example, the episode of Hagar's search for water is emulated by Muslims as they run between the two hills of Al-Safa and Al-Marwah.
The Hajj is associated with the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad from the 7th century, but the ritual of pilgrimage to Mecca is considered by Muslims to stretch back thousands of years to the time of Ibrahim (Abraham).
Enhanced by Zemanta
↧

Masjid e Taneem

September 10, 2013, 4:16 am
$
0
0


Masjid e Taneem is a mosque in the Al-Hil area about 5 miles away from the Holy Kaaba, in Taneem, which is near Mecca and acts as Miqat (a station for putting on pilgrims' garments) for people living in Mecca.This mosque is also known as Masjid -e- Ayesha since Prophet Mohammed 's wife Ayesha had put her Ihram (restriction on Pilgrimage) from this place once. If someone is living in Mecca and wants to perform Umra (pilgrimage to Mecca) then he should go to this place, enter into the state of Ihram (in part by putting on pilgrim's garments) and then return to Mecca so that the condition of traveling for the pilgrims is also fulfilled. The Prophet has said: “Part of the worship of Hajj and Umra is to travel in the way of Allah and to go out of the city.”[1]
This is quite a big mosque with superb facilities for baths, ablution and changing, available for pilgrims and those who come to offer regular prayers.
Enhanced by Zemanta
↧
↧

The Jamaraat Bridge

September 10, 2013, 4:33 am
$
0
0
Stoning of the devil 2006 Hajj. After reconstr...
Stoning of the devil 2006 Hajj. After reconstruction because of earlier stampedes. 
The Jamaraat Bridge (Arabic: جسر الجمرات‎; transliterated: Jisr Al-Jamaraat) is a pedestrian bridge in Mina, Saudi Arabia near Mecca used by Muslims during the stoning of the devil ritual of the Hajj. The bridge was originally constructed in 1963, and has been expanded several times since then. The purpose of the bridge is to enable pilgrims to throw stones at the three jamrah pillars from either the ground level or from the bridge. The pillars extend up through three openings in the bridge. Until 2006 the bridge had a single tier (i.e. a ground level with one bridge level above).
At certain times, over a million people may gather in the area of the bridge, which has sometimes led to fatal accidents.[1]“Jamaraat” is the plural of jamrah which is the Arabic term for each of the pillars involved in the stoning ritual. It literally means a small piece of stone or a pebble.[2]

New Bridge

Following the January 2006 Hajj, the old bridge was demolished and construction began on a new multi-level bridge. The ground and first levels were complete in time for the 2006/2007 Hajj, which passed without incident. Construction on the remaining two levels have been completed since December 2007 1428 AH Hajj.
The new bridge (designed by Dar Al-Handasah and constructed by the Bin Laden Group) contains a wider column-free interior space and expanded jamrah pillars many times longer than their pre-2006 predecessors. Additional ramps and tunnels were built for easier access, and bottlenecks were engineered out. Large canopies are planned to cover each of the three jamrah pillars to protect pilgrims from the desert sun. Ramps are also being built adjacent to the pillars to speed evacuation in the event of an emergency. Additionally, Saudi authorities have issued a fatwa decreeing that the stoning may take place between sunrise and sunset, rather than at the mid-day time that most pilgrims prefer.

Safety issues

During the Hajj, so many people use the bridge that overcrowding can create a hazard. Being the last day of the Hajj, some will bring their luggage.
  • On May 23, 1994, a stampede killed at least 270 pilgrims.
  • On April 9, 1998, at least 118 pilgrims were trampled to death and 180 injured.[1]
  • On March 5, 2001, 35 pilgrims were trampled to death in a stampede.
  • On February 11, 2003, the stoning of the Devil ritual claimed 14 pilgrims' lives.[2]
  • On February 1, 2004, 251 pilgrims were killed and another 244 injured in a stampede.[3]
  • On January 12, 2006, a stampede killed at least 346 pilgrims and injured at least 289 more.
Following the 2004 incident, Saudi authorities embarked on major construction work in and around the Jamaraat Bridge area. Additional access ways, footbridges, and emergency exits were built, and the three cylindrical pillars were replaced with longer and taller oblong walls of concrete to enable more pilgrims simultaneous access.[3] The next year they announced plans for a new, four-story bridge.
Enhanced by Zemanta
↧

Beauty of Islamabad

September 10, 2013, 1:14 pm
↧
Search

Beauty of Karachi

September 10, 2013, 1:26 pm
↧

Beauty of Quetta

September 10, 2013, 1:48 pm
↧
↧

Beautiful Urdu Poetry Umeed

September 12, 2013, 8:16 am
↧

Construction work in Holy Haram Makkah

September 12, 2013, 8:18 am
$
0
0



Construction work in Holy Haram Makkah
Enhanced by Zemanta
↧

The International Monetary Fund (IMF)

September 14, 2013, 12:55 am
$
0
0
IMF Headquarters, Washington, DC.
IMF Headquarters, Washington, DC. 
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) (French : Fonds monétaire international) is an international organization that was initiated in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference and formally created in 1945 by 29 member countries. The IMF's stated goal was to assist in the reconstruction of the world's international payment system post–World War II. Countries contribute money to a pool through a quota system from which countries with payment imbalances can borrow funds temporarily. Through this activity and others such as surveillance of its members' economies and the demand for self-correcting policies, the IMF works to improve the economies of its member countries.[1]
 
The IMF describes itself as “an organization of 188 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world.”[2] The organization's stated objectives are to promote international economic cooperation, international trade, employment, and exchange rate stability, including by making financial resources available to member countries to meet balance of payments needs.[3] Its headquarters are in Washington, D.C., United States.

Functions

The IMF works to foster global growth and economic stability. It provides policy advice and financing to members in economic difficulties and also works with developing nations to help them achieve macroeconomic stability and reduce poverty.[4] The rationale for this is that private international capital markets function imperfectly and many countries have limited access to financial markets. Such market imperfections, together with balance of payments financing, provide the justification for official financing, without which many countries could only correct large external payment imbalances through measures with adverse effects on both national and international economic prosperity.[5] The IMF can provide other sources of financing to countries in need that would not be available in the absence of an economic stabilization program supported by the Fund.
 
Upon initial IMF formation, its two primary functions were: to oversee the fixed exchange rate arrangements between countries,[6] thus helping national governments manage their exchange rates and allowing these governments to prioritize economic growth,[7] and to provide short-term capital to aid balance-of-payments.[6] This assistance was meant to prevent the spread of international economic crises. The Fund was also intended to help mend the pieces of the international economy post the Great Depression and World War II.[8]The IMF's role was fundamentally altered after the floating exchange rates post 1971. It shifted to examining the economic policies of countries with IMF loan agreements to determine if a shortage of capital was due to economic fluctuations or economic policy. The IMF also researched what types of government policy would ensure economic recovery.[9] The new challenge is to promote and implement policy that reduces the frequency of crises among the emerging market countries, especially the middle-income countries that are open to massive capital outflows.[10] Rather than maintaining a position of oversight of only exchange rates, their function became one of “surveillance” of the overall macroeconomic performance of its member countries. Their role became a lot more active because the IMF now manages economic policy instead of just exchange rates.
 
In addition, the IMF negotiates conditions on lending and loans under their policy of conditionality,[6] which was established in the 1950s.[8]Low-income countries can borrow on concessional terms, which means there is a period of time with no interest rates, through the Extended Credit Facility (ECF), the Standby Credit Facility (SCF) and the Rapid Credit Facility (RCF). Nonconcessional loans, which include interest rates, are provided mainly through Stand-By Arrangements (SBA), the Flexible Credit Line (FCL), the Precautionary and Liquidity Line (PLL), and the Extended Fund Facility. The IMF provides emergency assistance via the newly introduced Rapid Financing Instrument (RFI) to all its members facing urgent balance of payments needs.[11]

Surveillance of the global economy

The IMF is mandated to oversee the international monetary and financial system[12] and monitor the economic and financial policies of its 188 member countries. This activity is known as surveillance and facilitates international cooperation.[13] Since the demise of the Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates in the early 1970s, surveillance has evolved largely by way of changes in procedures rather than through the adoption of new obligations.[12] The responsibilities of the Fund changed from those of guardian to those of overseer of members’ policies.
The Fund typically analyzes the appropriateness of each member country’s economic and financial policies for achieving orderly economic growth, and assesses the consequences of these policies for other countries and for the global economy.[12]
 
In 1995 the International Monetary Fund began work on data dissemination standards with the view of guiding IMF member countries to disseminate their economic and financial data to the public. The International Monetary and Financial Committee (IMFC) endorsed the guidelines for the dissemination standards and they were split into two tiers: The General Data Dissemination System (GDDS) and the Special Data Dissemination Standard (SDDS). The International Monetary Fund executive board approved the SDDS and GDDS in 1996 and 1997 respectively, and subsequent amendments were published in a revised Guide to the General Data Dissemination System. The system is aimed primarily at statisticians and aims to improve many aspects of statistical systems in a country. It is also part of the World Bank Millennium Development Goals and Poverty Reduction Strategic Papers.
 
The primary objective of the GDDS is to encourage IMF member countries to build a framework to improve data quality and increase statistical capacity building. Upon building a framework, a country can evaluate statistical needs, set priorities in improving the timeliness, transparency, reliability and accessibility of financial and economic data. Some countries initially used the GDDS, but later upgraded to SDDS. Some entities that are not themselves IMF members also contribute statistical data to the systems:

Conditionality of loans

IMF conditionality is a set of policies or conditions that the IMF requires in exchange for financial resources.[6] The IMF does not require collateral from countries for loans but rather requires the government seeking assistance to correct its macroeconomic imbalances in the form of policy reform. If the conditions are not met, the funds are withheld.[6] Conditionality is perhaps the most controversial aspect of IMF policies.[15] The concept of conditionality was introduced in an Executive Board decision in 1952 and later incorporated in the Articles of Agreement. Conditionality is associated with economic theory as well as an enforcement mechanism for repayment. Stemming primarily from the work of Jacques Polak in the Fund's research department, the theoretical underpinning of conditionality was the “monetary approach to the balance of payments."[8]

Structural adjustment

Further information: Structural adjustment
Some of the conditions for structural adjustment can include:
These conditions have also been sometimes labeled as the Washington Consensus.

Benefits

These loan conditions ensure that the borrowing country will be able to repay the Fund and that the country won’t attempt to solve their balance of payment problems in a way that would negatively impact the international economy.[16][17] The incentive problem of moral hazard, which is the actions of economic agents maximizing their own utility to the detriment of others when they do not bear the full consequences of their actions, is mitigated through conditions rather than providing collateral; countries in need of IMF loans do not generally possess internationally valuable collateral anyway.[17]
Conditionality also reassures the IMF that the funds lent to them will be used for the purposes defined by the Articles of Agreement and provides safeguards that country will be able to rectify its macroeconomic and structural imbalances.[17] In the judgment of the Fund, the adoption by the member of certain corrective measures or policies will allow it to repay the Fund, thereby ensuring that the same resources will be available to support other members.[15]
 
As of 2004, borrowing countries have had a very good track record for repaying credit extended under the Fund's regular lending facilities with full interest over the duration of the loan. This indicates that Fund lending does not impose a burden on creditor countries, as lending countries receive market-rate interest on most of their quota subscription, plus any of their own-currency subscriptions that are loaned out by the Fund, plus all of the reserve assets that they provide the Fund.[5]

Criticisms

In some quarters, the IMF has been criticized for being 'out of touch' with local economic conditions, cultures, and environments in the countries they are requiring policy reform.[6] The Fund knows very little about what public spending on programs like public health and education actually means, especially in African countries; they have no feel for the impact that their proposed national budget will have on people. The economic advice the IMF gives might not always take into consideration the difference between what spending means on paper and how it is felt by citizens.[18]For example, some people believe that Jeffrey Sach's work shows that "the Fund's usual prescription is 'budgetary belt tightening to countries who are much too poor to own belts'.[18] " It has been said that the IMF's role as a generalist institution specializing in macroeconomic issues needs reform. Conditionality has also been criticized because a country can pledge collateral of "acceptable assets" in order to obtain waivers on certain conditions.[17] However, that assumes that all countries have the capability and choice to provide acceptable collateral.
 
One view is that conditionality undermines domestic political institutions.[19] The recipient governments are sacrificing policy autonomy in exchange for funds, which can lead to public resentment of the local leadership for accepting and enforcing the IMF conditions. Political instability can result from more leadership turnover as political leaders are replaced in electoral backlashes.[6] IMF conditions are often criticized for their bias against economic growth and reduce government services, thus increasing unemployment.[8]Another criticism is that IMF programs are only designed to address poor governance, excessive government spending, excessive government intervention in markets, and too much state ownership.[18] This assumes that this narrow range of issues represents the only possible problems; everything is standardized and differing contexts are ignored.[18] A country may also be compelled to accept conditions it would not normally accept had they not been in a financial crisis in need of assistance.[15]
 
It is claimed that conditionalities retard social stability and hence inhibit the stated goals of the IMF, while Structural Adjustment Programs lead to an increase in poverty in recipient countries.[20] The IMF sometimes advocates “austerity programmes,” cutting public spending and increasing taxes even when the economy is weak, in order to bring budgets closer to a balance, thus reducing budget deficits. Countries are often advised to lower their corporate tax rate. In Globalization and Its Discontents, Joseph E. Stiglitz, former chief economist and senior vice president at the World Bank, criticizes these policies.[21] He argues that by converting to a more monetarist approach, the purpose of the fund is no longer valid, as it was designed to provide funds for countries to carry out Keynesian reflations, and that the IMF “was not participating in a conspiracy, but it was reflecting the interests and ideology of the Western financial community.”[22]

Reform

The IMF is only one of many international organizations and it is a generalist institution for macroeconomic issues only; its core areas of concern in developing countries are very narrow. One proposed reform is a movement towards close partnership with other specialist agencies in order to better productivity. The IMF has little to no communication with other international organizations such as UN specialist agencies like UNICEF, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP).[18]
effrey Sachs argues in The End of Poverty: “international institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank have the brightest economists and the lead in advising poor countries on how to break out of poverty, but the problem is development economics”.[18]Development economics needs the reform, not the IMF. He also notes that IMF loan conditions need to be partnered with other reforms such as trade reform in developed nations, debt cancellation, and increased financial assistance for investments in basic infrastructure in order to be effective.[18] IMF loan conditions cannot stand alone and produce change; they need to be partnered with other reforms.

History

The International Monetary Fund was originally laid out as a part of the Bretton Woods system exchange agreement in 1944.[23] During the earlier Great Depression, countries sharply raised barriers to foreign trade in an attempt to improve their failing economies. This led to the devaluation of national currencies and a decline in world trade.[24]This breakdown in international monetary cooperation created a need for oversight. The representatives of 45 governments met at the Bretton Woods Conference in the Mount Washington Hotel in the area of Bretton Woods, New Hampshire in the United States, to discuss framework for post-World War II international economic cooperation. The participating countries were concerned with the rebuilding of Europe and the global economic system after the war.
 
There were two views on the role the IMF should assume as a global economic institution. British economist John Maynard Keynes imagined that the IMF would be a cooperative fund upon which member states could draw to maintain economic activity and employment through periodic crises. This view suggested an IMF that helped governments and to act as the US government had during the New Deal in response to World War II. American delegate Harry Dexter White foresaw an IMF that functioned more like a bank, making sure that borrowing states could repay their debts on time.[25] Most of White's plan was incorporated into the final acts adopted at Bretton Woods.
 
The International Monetary Fund formally came into existence on 27 December 1945, when the first 29 countries ratified its Articles of Agreement.[26] By the end of 1946 the Fund had grown to 39 members.[27] On 1 March 1947, the IMF began its financial operations,[28] and on 8 May France became the first country to borrow from it.[27]The IMF was one of the key organizations of the international economic system; its design allowed the system to balance the rebuilding of international capitalism with the maximization of national economic sovereignty and human welfare, also known as embedded liberalism.[29]
 
The IMF's influence in the global economy steadily increased as it accumulated more members. The increase reflected in particular the attainment of political independence by many African countries and more recently the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union because most countries in the Soviet sphere of influence did not join the IMF.[24]The Bretton Woods system prevailed until 1971, when the U.S. government suspended the convertibility of the US$ (and dollar reserves held by other governments) into gold. This is known as the Nixon Shock.[24] As of January 2012, the largest borrowers from the fund in order are Greece, Portugal, Ireland, Romania and Ukraine.[30]

Member countries

The 188 members of the IMF include 187 members of the UN and the Republic of Kosovo[a].[32][33] All members of the IMF are also International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) members and vice versa.[citation needed]Former members are Cuba (which left in 1964)[34] and the Republic of China, which was ejected from the UN in 1980 after losing the support of then U.S. President Jimmy Carter and was replaced by the People's Republic of China.[35] However, "Taiwan Province of China" is still listed in the official IMF indices.[36]Apart from Cuba, the other UN states that do not belong to the IMF are Andorra, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Nauru and North Korea. The former Czechoslovakia was expelled in 1954 for "failing to provide required data" and was readmitted in 1990, after the Velvet Revolution. Poland withdrew in 1950—allegedly pressured by the Soviet Union—but returned in 1986.[37]

Qualifications

Any country may apply to be a part of the IMF. Post-IMF formation, in the early postwar period, rules for IMF membership were left relatively loose. Members needed to make periodic membership payments towards their quota, to refrain from currency restrictions unless granted IMF permission, to abide by the Code of Conduct in the IMF Articles of Agreement, and to provide national economic information. However, stricter rules were imposed on governments that applied to the IMF for funding.[38]
 
The countries that joined the IMF between 1945 and 1971 agreed to keep their exchange rates secured at rates that could be adjusted only to correct a "fundamental disequilibrium" in the balance of payments, and only with the IMF's agreement.[39]Some members have a very difficult relationship with the IMF and even when they are still members they do not allow themselves to be monitored. Argentina for example refuses to participate in an Article IV Consultation with the IMF.[40]

Benefits

Member countries of the IMF have access to information on the economic policies of all member countries, the opportunity to influence other members’ economic policies, technical assistance in banking, fiscal affairs, and exchange matters, financial support in times of payment difficulties, and increased opportunities for trade and investment.[41]

Leadership

Board of Governors

The Board of Governors consists of one governor and one alternate governor for each member country. Each member country appoints its two governors. The Board normally meets once a year and is responsible for electing or appointing executive directors to the Executive Board. While the Board of Governors is officially responsible for approving quota increases, special drawing right allocations, the admittance of new members, compulsory withdrawal of members, and amendments to the Articles of Agreement and By-Laws, in practice it has delegated most of its powers to the IMF's Executive Board.[42]
 
The Board of Governors is advised by the International Monetary and Financial Committee and the Development Committee. The International Monetary and Financial Committee has 24 members and monitors developments in global liquidity and the transfer of resources to developing countries.[43] The Development Committee has 25 members and advises on critical development issues and on financial resources required to promote economic development in developing countries. They also advise on trade and global environmental issues.[43]

Executive Board

24 Executive Directors make up Executive Board. The Executive Directors represent all 188 member-countries. Countries with large economies have their own Executive Director, but most countries are grouped in constituencies representing four or more countries.[42]Following the 2008 Amendment on Voice and Participation, eight countries each appoint an Executive Director: the United States, Japan, Germany, France, the United Kingdom, China, the Russian Federation, and Saudi Arabia.[44] The remaining 16 Directors represent constituencies consisting of 4 to 22 countries. The Executive Director representing the largest constituency of 22 countries accounts for 1.55% of the vote.

Managing Director

The IMF is led by a managing director, who is head of the staff and serves as Chairman of the Executive Board. The managing director is assisted by a First Deputy managing director and three other Deputy Managing Directors.[42] Historically the IMF's managing director has been European and the president of the World Bank has been from the United States. However, this standard is increasingly being questioned and competition for these two posts may soon open up to include other qualified candidates from any part of the world.[45][46]In 2011 the world's largest developing countries, the BRIC nations, issued a statement declaring that the tradition of appointing a European as managing director undermined the legitimacy of the IMF and called for the appointment to be merit-based.[46][47] The head of the IMF's European department is António Borges of Portugal, former deputy governor of the Bank of Portugal. He was elected in October 2010.[48]
Enhanced by Zemanta
↧
Viewing all 6213 articles
Browse latest View live
Search